Pendahuluan Fisika Kuantum

Pendahuluan Fisika Kuantum

I. Deskripsi

Mata kuliah ini merupakan mata kuliah pendahuluan bagi mata kuliah fisika kuantum dan juga merupakan prasyarat bagai mata kuliah lain yaitu MK Fisika inti, fisika zat padat dan mata kuliah lain yang tergabung dalam KBK fisika material. Selesai mengikuti mata kuliah ini mahasiswa diharapkan mampu menjelaskan pada kondisi seperti apa suatu permasalahan fisika cukup dibahas secara klasik dan pada kondisi bagaimana suatu permasalahan fisika harus dibahas secara mekanika kuantum, mampu menjelaskan bahwa fisika klasik bersifat deterministic sedangkan mekanika kuantum bersifat statistik serta mampu menjelaskan persamaan dinamika dalam mekanikan kuantum serta mengaplikasikannya baik dalam permasalahan 1 dimensi maupun untuk permasalahan 3 dimensi. Dalam perkuliahan ini dibahas ide ide dasar mekanika kuantum, probabilitas gelombang materi, ruang fungsi gelombang partikel tunggal, persamaan dinamika mekanika kuantum (pers. Schrodinger), aplikasi persamaan schrodinger bebas waktu pada permasalahan sederhana 1 dimensi baik untuk free particle maupun bound states, aplikasi persamaan schrodinger 3 dimensi pada atom hydrogen (gaya sentral), momentum sudut orbital dan penjumlahan momentum sudut. Pelaksanaan kuliah menggunakan pendekatan ekspositori dalam bentuk ceramah dan pemecahan masalah yanmg dilengkapi dengan penggunaan OHT. Untuk mengetahui hasil belajar mahasiswa dilakukan evaluasi berupa UTS dan UAS

II. Silabus

1. Identitas mata kuliah

a. Nama mata kuliah : Pendahuluan Fisika Kuantum
b. Nomor kode : FI363
c. Jumlah sks : 3
d. Semester : VI
e. Kelompok mata kuliah : MKKP
f. Program studi/Program : Pendidikan Fisika dan Fisika / S1
g. Status mata kuliah : Wajib
h. Prasyarat : Fisika Modern
i. Dosen : P.Sinaga, Yuyu Rahmat Tayubi, Asep Sutiadi



2. Tujuan

Selesai mengikuti mata kuliah ini mahasiswa diharapkan mampu menjelaskan pada kondisi seperti apa suatu permasalahan fisika cukup dibahas secara klasik dan pada kondisi bagaimana suatu permasalahan fisika harus dibahas secara mekanika kuantum, mampu menjelaskan bahwa fisika klasik bersifat deterministic sedangkan mekanika kuantum bersifat statistic serta mampu menjelaskan persamaan dinamika dalam mekanikan kuantum, mengaplikasikannya baik dalam permasalahan 1 dimensi maupun untuk permasalahan 3 dimensi serta mampu menentukan bilangan kuantum orbital total yang diperbolehkan dari suatu sistim berelektron banyak

3. Deskripsi isi

Dalam perkuliahan ini dibahas ide-ide dasar mekanika kuantum, probabilitas gelombang materi: rapat probabilitas, probabilitas, harga ekspektasi, variansi (dari variable posisi, momentum, energi kinetic, energi total) dan ketidakpastian. Ruang fungsi gelombang partikel tunggal: ruang fungsi gelombang sebagai ruang vector berdimensi n, operator operator dalam mekanika kuantum, sifat operator komutator. Postulat dalam mekanika kuantum: postulat 1, postulat 2, postulat 3, postulat 4, postulat 5, postulat 6. Persamaan dinamika mekanika kuantum: pers. Schrodinger bergantung waktu.

Persamaan schrodinger tidak bergantung waktu. Aplikasi persamaan schrodinger bebas waktu pada permasalahan sederhana 1 dimensi: free particle, step potential, barrier potential, sumur potensial persegi berhingga, sumur potensial persegi tak hingga, potensial osilator harmonik. Aplikasi persamaan Schrodinger pada permasalahan 3 dimensi: partikel bebas, partikel dalam keadaan terikat (bound states), atom hydrogen (gaya sentral). Momentum sudut orbital: operator operator momentum sudut orbital. Penjumlahan momentum sudut: representasi gandeng dan tak gandeng, penjumlahan momentum sudut untuk sistim dua electron, penjumlahan momentum sudut untuk sistim electron banyak.

4. Pendekatan pembelajaran:

Ekspositori
• Metode : Ceramah, tanya jawab, dan pemecahan masalah
• Tugas : Makalah
• Media : OHT .

5. Evaluasi
• makalah
• UTS
• UAS


6. Rincian materi perkuliahan tiap pertemuan

Pertemuan ke 1 : Penjelasan deskripsi dan silabi mata kuliah pendahuluan fisika kuantum, postulat quantisasi energi dari Planck, penurunan persamaan rapat energi sebagai fungsi frekuensi dari benda hitam .

Pertemuan ke 2 : Teori kuantum Einstein untuk efek photo listrik, hamburan Compton, Kuantisasi momentum sudut dan tingkat tingkat energi pada atom oleh Bohr, kuantisasi Wilson-Sommerfeld.

Pertemuan ke 3 : Postulat de broglie, persamaan gelombang materi, persamaan transform fourier, relasi Parceval.

Pertemuan ke 4 : Probabilitas gelombang materi: interpretasi Max Born, fungsi gelombang dalam mekanika kuantum, postulat kuantisasi.

Pertemuan ke 5 : Harga ekspektasi, variansi dan ketidak pastian dari besaran posisi, momentum dan energi suatu gelombang materi.

Pertemuan ke 6 : Ruang fungsi gelombang partikel tunggal sebagai ruang vektor.

Pertemuan ke 7 : Operator dan komutator.

Pertemuan ke 8 : Persamaan nilai eigen, observable dan beberapa teorema.

Pertemuan ke 9 : Persamaan Schrodinger.

Pertemuan ke 10 : Aplikasi persamaan Schrodinger tidak bergantung waktu pada permasalahan sederhana untuk 1 dimensi: partikel bebas, step potensial (bond states).

Pertemuan ke 11 : Barrier potensial, finite square well potensial, infinite square well potensial.

Pertemuan ke 12 : Potensial osilator harmonik.

Pertemuan ke 13 : Aplikasi persamaan Schrodinger tak bergantung waktu pada permasalahan sederhana untuk 3 dimensi : partikel bebas dalam sistim koordinat Cartesian, partikel bebas
dalam sistim koordinat bola (persamaan radial).

Pertemuan ke 14 : Partikel dalam medan potensial simetrik bola (atom Hidrogen)

Pertemuan ke 15 : Mekanika kuantum dari momentum angular: operator operator momentum angular, persamaan nilai eigen untuk operator momentum angular.

Pertemuan ke 16 : Penjumlahan momentum angular untuk sistim electron banyak.

7. Daftar buku.

Buku utama:
P. Sinaga dkk, 2002, Fisika Kuantum (diktat kuliah )

Referensi:

1. Cohen Claude, at all., 1977, Quantum Mechanics. New York, John Wiley & Sons.

2. Yariv Anmon, 1982, Theory and applications of quantum mechanics, New York, John Wiley & Sons.

Fisika Quantum

Jurusan Pendidikan Fisika

Fakultas Pendidikan Matematika dan Ilmu Pengetahuan Alam

Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia

SILABI

Matakuliah

Fisika Kuantum

Kode

FIS526

Dosen

Parlindungan Sinaga, Drs., M.Si

Semester

Ganjil

Kredit

4

Jumlah Pertemuan

Jumlah Jam

4

Jumlah Mahasiswa

Jumlah Kelas

Pra-syarat

Pernah mengikuti kuliah Matematika Fisika dan Fisika Modern

Wajib / Pilihan

Wajib

MKDU /MKDK /MKBS /MKPBM

MKBS

Tujuan Matakuliah

Mahasiswa memahami bahwa fisika kuantum lebih umum dari pada fisika klasik dan mengetahui kapan suatu permasalahan dibahas secara mekanika kuantum dan kapan dibahas secara klasik.

Deskripsi Matakuliah

Materi perkuliahan ini adalah : ide-ide dasar mekanika kuantum, formulasi keadaan dalam mekanika kuantum, transformasi ruang keadaan, probabilitas gelombang-materi, ruang fungsi gelombang partikel tunggal, persamaan Schrodinger, aplikasi persamaan Schrodinger pada permasalahan sederhana 1 dimensi dan 3 dimensi, gaya sentral dan momentum angular.

Buku Wajib

Cohen Tannoudji, Quantum Mechanics, Volume I, Wiley International.

Buku Referensi

1. Richard Loboff, Introduction to Quantum Mechanics, Addison Wesley, Publishing Company. 2. S. Brandt, & H. Dicter, The Picture Book of Quantum Mechanics, John Willey & Soms. 3. John D. Mc.Gervey, Quantum Mechanics Concep & Applications Akademic Press.

Media

Evaluasi

Evaluasi dilakukan tiga kali yaitu tes unit 1, tes unit 2, dan tes unit 3.

Tugas mahasiswa

Jadwal		Kegiatan	Referensi
1st	Pendahuluan
2nd	Ide-ide dasar mekanika kuantum; radiasi benda hitam, efek foto listrik, efek compton dualisme gelombang partikel, prinsip ketidak pastian Heisenbergh.	Kuliah (ceramah), diskusi dan latihan (responsi)	Buku1 :hal.431 Buku2 :hal.106
3rd	Probabilitas gelombang materi, gelombang paket.	Kuliah (ceramah), diskusi dan latihan (responsi)	Buku1 :hal.303 Buku2 :hal.126
4rd	Interpretasi probabilitas dan prinsip ketidakpastian: harga ekspektasi dan variansi.	Kuliah (ceramah), diskusi dan latihan (responsi)	Buku1 :hal.331 Buku2 :hal.204
5th	Ruang fungsi gelombang partikel tunggal: Struktur ruang fungsi gelombang, operator linier, sifat komutator, basis orthonormal diskrit.	Kuliah (ceramah), diskusi dan latihan (responsi)	Buku1 :hal.331 Buku2 :hal.204
6th	Fungsi eiogen dan nilai eigen dari operator.	Kuliah (ceramah), diskusi dan latihan (responsi Kuliah (ceramah)	Buku1 :hal.324 Buku2 :hal.254
7th	Persamaan Schrodinger dan aplikasinya : persamaan schrodinger bebas waktu, persamaan schrodinger bergantung waktu.	Kuliah (ceramah), diskusi dan latihan (responsi Kuliah (ceramah)	Buku1 :hal.331 Buku2 :hal.204
8th	Aplikasi persamaan schrodinger pada persamaan satu dimensi: partikel bebas, step potensi, Barrier potensial.	Kuliah (ceramah), diskusi dan latihan (responsi uliah (ceramah)	Buku1 :hal.341
9th	Sumur potensial persegi berhimgga, sumur potensial persegi takhingga, potensial osilator harmonik sederhana.	Kuliah (ceramah), diskusi dan latihan (responsi Kuliah (ceramah)	Buku1 :hal344
10th	Persamaan dalam tiga dimensi : partikel bebas dalam koordinat Cartesian.	Kuliah (ceramah), diskusi dan latihan (responsi Kuliah (ceramah)	Buku1 :hal.348
11th	Partikel bebas dalam koordinat bola: fungsi gelombang radial.	Kuliah (ceramah), diskusi dan latihan (responsi Kuliah (ceramah)	Buku1 :hal.354
12th	Permasalahan gaya sentral (atom hidrogen), Hamiltonian, Harga eigen dan fungsi eigen.	Kuliah (ceramah), diskusi dan latihan (responsi Kuliah (ceramah)	Buku1 :hal.372 Buku2 :hal.279
13th	Fungsi keadaan dalam arah radial, fungsi keadaam dalam arah orbital.	Kuliah (ceramah), diskusi dan latihan (responsi Kuliah (ceramah)	Buku1 :hal.379
14th	Momentum angular orbital, sifat dasar momentum angular, harga eigen dari operator momentum angular.	Kuliah (ceramah), diskusi dan latihan (responsi Kuliah (ceramah)	Buku1 :hal.388
15th	Fungsi eigen dari momentum angular orbital.	Kuliah (ceramah), diskusi dan latihan (responsi Kuliah (ceramah)	Buku1 :hal.401
16th	Penjumlahan momentum sudut : representasi gandeng dan tak gandeng, operator CSCO.	Kuliah (ceramah), diskusi dan latihan (responsi Kuliah (ceramah)	Buku2 ;hal.542
17th	Penjumlahan momentum sudut untuk sistem dua elektron, untuk sistem elektron baryah.	Kuliah (ceramah), diskusi dan latihan (responsi Kuliah (ceramah)	Buku1 :hal.424.
18th

Sumber

:

Buku Wajib Cohen Tannoudji, Quantum Mechanics, Volume I, Wiley International. Buku Referensi 1. Richard Loboff, Introduction to Quantum Mechanics, Addison Wesley, Publishing Company. 2. S. Brandt, & H. Dicter, The Picture Book of Quantum Mechanics, John Willey & Soms. 3. John D. Mc.Gervey, Quantum Mechanics Concep & Applications Akademic Press.

Quantum mechanics, also known as quantum physics or quantum theory, is a branch of physics providing a mathematical description of the dual particle-like and wave-like behaviour and interaction of matter and energy.

Quantum mechanics departs from classical mechanics primarily at the atomic and sub-atomic scales, the so-called quantum realm. In special cases some quantum mechanical processes are macroscopic, but these emerge only at extremely low or extremely high energies or temperatures.

The term was coined by Max Planck, and derives from the observation that some physical quantities can be changed only by discrete amounts, or quanta, as multiples of the Planck constant, rather than being capable of varying continuously or by any arbitrary amount. For example, the angular momentum, or more generally the action, of an electron bound into an atom or molecule is quantized. Although an unbound electron does not exhibit quantized energy levels, one which is bound in an atomic orbital has quantized values of angular momentum. In the context of quantum mechanics, the wave–particle duality of energy and matter and the uncertainty principle provide a unified view of the behavior of photons, electrons and other atomic-scale objects.

The mathematical formulations of quantum mechanics are abstract. Similarly, the implications are often counter-intuitive in terms of classical physics. The centerpiece of the mathematical formulation is the wavefunction (defined by Schrödinger's wave equation), which describes the probability amplitude of the position and momentum of a particle. Mathematical manipulations of the wavefunction usually involve the bra-ket notation, which requires an understanding of complex numbers and linear functionals. The wavefunction treats the object as a quantum harmonic oscillator and the mathematics is akin to that of acoustic resonance.

Many of the results of quantum mechanics do not have models that are easily visualized in terms of classical mechanics; for instance, the ground state in the quantum mechanical model is a non-zero energy state that is the lowest permitted energy state of a system, rather than a traditional classical system that is thought of as simply being at rest with zero kinetic energy.

Fundamentally, it attempts to explain the peculiar behaviour of matter and energy at the subatomic level—an attempt which has produced more accurate results than classical physics in predicting how individual particles behave. But many unexplained anomalies remain.

Historically, the earliest versions of quantum mechanics were formulated in the first decade of the 20th Century, around the time that atomic theory and the corpuscular theory of light as interpreted by Einstein first came to be widely accepted as scientific fact; these latter theories can be viewed as quantum theories of matter and electromagnetic radiation.

Following Schrödinger's breakthrough in deriving his wave equation in the mid-1920s, quantum theory was significantly reformulated away from the old quantum theory, towards the quantum mechanics of Werner Heisenberg, Max Born, Wolfgang Pauli and their associates, becoming a science of probabilities based upon the Copenhagen interpretation of Niels Bohr. By 1930, the reformulated theory had been further unified and formalized by the work of Paul Dirac and John von Neumann, with a greater emphasis placed on measurement, the statistical nature of our knowledge of reality, and philosophical speculations about the role of the observer.

The Copenhagen interpretation quickly became (and remains) the orthodox interpretation. However, due to the absence of conclusive experimental evidence there are also many competing interpretations.

Quantum mechanics has since branched out into almost every aspect of physics, and into other disciplines such as quantum chemistry, quantum electronics, quantum optics and quantum information science. Much 19th Century physics has been re-evaluated as the classical limit of quantum mechanics and its more advanced developments in terms of quantum field theory, string theory, and speculative quantum gravity theories.

Fisika Lingkungan

Fisika Lingkungan

Fisika lingkungan merupakan pembelajaran tentang aspek-aspek fisis dan matematis yang berhubungan dengan konsep-konsep mengenai teori lingkungan termasuk sistem ekologi dan dampak pencemaran terhadap keseimbangan alam, dampak radiasi atom-inti terhadap alam, dampak kebocoran reaktor nuklir terhadap lingkungan dan radiasi gelombang EM terhadap manusia dan makhluk hidup lainnya, dampak pemanasan global (global warming) terhadap alam serta terjadinya efek rumah kaca, penipisan lapisan ozone dapat mulai dikemas secara simple sehingga masyarakat menyadari pentingnya melindungi lingkungan yang ditinggali.

ENVIRONMENTAL PHYSICS

Principles of Environmental Physics

By John Monteith, Emeritus Professor of Environmental Physics, University of Nottingham

Mike Unsworth, Oregon State University, Corvallis, USA

Description

Environmental Physics concerns the description and analysis of physical processes that establish the conditions in which all species of life survive and reproduce. The subject involves a synthesis of mathematical relations that describe the physical nature of the environment and the many biological responses that environments evoke. Environmental Physics provides a basis for understanding the complex responses of plants and animals to environmental change. International concern with climate change has made both politicans and the general public much more aware of the impact of local and global weather on all aspects of domestic life, industry and commerce.

Environmental Physics has become more widely used by biologists, atmospheric scientists and climate modellers to specify interations between surfaces and the atmosphere. This new edition contains further material on causes of global warming, applications of remote sensing, and the carbon and water cycles of crops and forests.Audience: Advanced undergraduate and graduate students in university departments of physics, atmospheric sciences, biological and environmental sciences, research scientists in agriculture, forestry, hydrology and ecology in academia, government research and industry, natural resource managers, environmental consultants and advisers in non-governmental organizations.

Sejarah Fisika

Sejarah Fisika

Silabus dan Rencana Perkuliahan

Standar Kompetensi

Mengembangkan kemampuan dalam mengkaji pengetahuan dan wawasan tentang perkembangan fisika sebagai suatu disiplin ilmu dan masalahmasalah serta pikiran-pikiran yang melatarbelakanginya.

Mata Kuliah : Sejarah Fisika
Kode : FI 335
SKS : 2 SKS
Semester : 6
Nama Dosen : Bpk. Asep Sutiadi, S.Pd., M.Si.

[PDF]

SAP Sejarah Fisika FI335 - UPI

Sejarah Fisika (FI 335)

I. Deskripsi

Mata kuliah ini merupakan perkuliahan pilihan kelompok perluasan dan pendalaman yang membekali pengetahuan dan wawasan perkembangan fisika, bagi mahasiswa pendidikan dan non-pendidikan. Selesai mengikuti perkuliahan ini mahasiswa diharapkan mampu memahami perkembangan fisika sebagai suatu disiplin ilmu dan masalah-masalah serta pikiran-pikiran yang melatarbelakanginya.

Lingkup perkuliahan meliputi: Asal-usul perkembangan fisika yang tercatat sejarah, kajian pustaka tentang topik-topik yang menyangkut suatu aspek fisika atau sumbangan suatu masyarakat terhadap perkembangan fisika, dan memahami serta mengenal kehidupan ilmuwan dan tokoh penyumbang penting perkembangan fisika. Pelaksanaan perkuliahan meliputi kegiatan ceramah dan tanya jawab, membuat dan mempresentasikan makalah, pemutaran film sains, dan diskusi kelas yang dilengkapi dengan penggunaan OHP dan LCD. Evaluasi hasil belajar mahasiswa didasarkan pada hasil pengolahan informasi yang diperoleh dari kehadiran, makalah,

tugas, presentasi, aktivitas selama perkuliahan, UTS, dan UAS.

Buku sumber:

Richtmeyer, dkk. (1955).

Introduction to Modern Physics, New York: McGraw Hill Company dan Jacoub, B. (1968).

Sejarah Fisika, Bandung: Jurusan Pendidikan Fisika.


2. Tujuan

Selesai mengikuti perkuliahan ini mahasiswa diharapkan memiliki pengetahuan dan wawasan tentang perkembangan fisika sebagai suatu disiplin ilmu dan masalah-masalah serta pikiran-pikiran yang melatarbelakanginya.

3. Deskripsi Isi

Dalam perkuliahan ini dibahas mengenai asal-usul perkembangan fisika yang tercatat sejarah yang meliputi periodisasi sejarah fisika menurut Richtmeyer dan menurut Jacoub, Fisika pada zaman Babilonia dan Mesir Kuno, Fisika di Yunani Kuno, Masa Islam, perkembangan Fisika Klasik, temuan-temuan pada akhir abad 19, dan Fisika Modern. Perkuliahan ini juga mengkaji pustaka tentang topik-topik yang menyangkut suatu aspek fisika atau sumbangan suatu masyarakat terhadap perkembangan fisika, yang meliputi: Sumbangan Cina, India, Jepang, dan Indonesia terhadap perkembangan Fisika; Perkembangan Mekanika, Ilmu Panas, Optika, Listrik Magnet, Teori Atom, Astronomi, Sains Kebumian, serta Teori dan Mekanika Kuantum pada tiap periode. Mengenal Kehidupan ilmuwan yang meliputi: Galileo Galilei, Isaac Newton, dan Albert Einstein, serta Mengenal Kehidupan Ilmuwan Islam Penyumbang Penting Perkembangan Fisika.

4. Pendekatan Pembelajaran

Pendekatan ekspositori. Metode yang digunakan ceramah, tanya jawab, diskusi, dan pemutaran film sains. Tugas-tugas berupa pembuatan makalah dan penyajiannya.

5. Media Pembelajaran

Media yang digunakan OHP dan LCD.

6. Evaluasi

Kehadiran, makalah, tugas, presentasi, aktivitas selama perkuliahan, UTS, dan UAS.


7. Materi Perkuliahan

7.1 Pertemuan 1: Penjelasan lingkup dan tagihan kuliah, pembagian kelompok, dan topik diskusi

7.2 Pertemuan 2: Asal-usul perkembangan fisika yang tercatat sejarah

7.3 Pertemuan 3: Sumbangan Babilonia, Mesir Kuno, dan Yunani Kuno dalam fisika serta penayangan film sains

7.4 Pertemuan 4: Sumbangan Islam dalam Fisika

7.5 Pertemuan 5: Berkembangnya metode eksperimen dalam fisika dan perkembangan fisika klasik

7.6 Pertemuan 6: Perkembangan fisika pada akhir abad ke-19 dan Perkembangan fisika Modern

7.7 Pertemuan 7: Perkembangan filsafat dan sains abad 20 serta penayangan film sains

7.8 Pertemuan 8: UTS

7.9 Pertemuan 9: Presentasi dan Diskusi Mahasiswa tentang:
1. Sumbangan Cina terhadap perkembangan fisika
2. Sumbangan India terhadap perkembangan fisika


7.10 Pertemuan 10: Presentasi dan Diskusi Mahasiswa tentang:
3. Sumbangan Jepang terhadap perkembangan fisika
4. Sumbangan Indonesia terhadap perkembangan fisika


7.11 Pertemuan 11: Presentasi dan Diskusi Mahasiswa tentang:
5. Perkembangan Mekanika pada tiap periode
6. Perkembangan Ilmu Panas pada tiap periode


7.12 Pertemuan 12: Presentasi dan Diskusi Mahasiswa tentang:
7. Perkembangan Optika pada tiap periode
8. Perkembangan Listrik Magnet pada tiap periode

7.13 Pertemuan 13: Presentasi dan Diskusi Mahasiswa tentang:
9. Perkembangan Teori Atom pada tiap periode
10. Perkembangan Teori dan Mekanika Kuantum pada tiap periode


7.14 Pertemuan 14: Presentasi dan Diskusi Mahasiswa tentang:
11. Perkembangan Sains Kebumian pada tiap periode
12. Perkembangan Astronomi pada tiap periode


7.15 Pertemuan 15: Presentasi dan Diskusi Mahasiswa tentang:
13. Mengenal Kehidupan Galileo Galilei
14. Mengenal Kehidupan Isaac Newton


7.16 Pertemuan 16: Presentasi dan Diskusi Mahasiswa tentang:
15. Mengenal Kehidupan Albert Einstein
16. Mengenal Kehidupan Ilmuwan Islam penyumbang Penting perkembangan Fisika

7.17 Pertemuan

17: UAS


8. Buku Sumber

Buku Sumber Utama:

Richtmeyer, Kennard, & Lauritson. (1955). Introduction to Modern Physics, New
York: McGraw Hill Company

Jacoub, Boer. (1968). Sejarah Fisika, Diktat, Bandung: Jurusan Pendidikan Fisika
IKIP Bandung.

Buku Sumber Referensi:

Cajori, F. (1968). A History of Physics, New York: Duver Publication Inc.

Pendahuluan Fisika Zat Padat

Matakuliah : Pendahuluan Fisika Zat Padat

Nama Dosen :

1. Dra. Wiendartun, M.Si

2. Dra. Heni, M.Si.

3. Drs. Yuyu R. Tayubi, M.Si.


Buku Sumber :

Buku Utama :

Kittel Charles, Introduction to Solid State Physics 6th, 1991, John Wiley & Sons, New York

Referensi :

1. Ashcroft and Mermin, Solid State Physics, 1976, Saunders College , Philadelphia
2. M.A.Oemar, Fundamental of Solid State Physics, 1977, Addison Wesley, USA.
3. Adrianus J Dekker, Solid State Physics, 1978, Maruzen company LTD, Japan
4. H.M.Rosenberg, The Solid State Physics Third Edition, 1987, Oxford Science Publications, USA.
4. Christman, Introduction to Solid Physics, 1989, John Wiley & Sons, USA.

A crystal or crystalline solid is a solid material whose constituent atoms, molecules, or ions are arranged in an orderly repeating pattern extending in all three spatial dimensions. The scientific study of crystals and crystal formation is known as crystallography. The process of crystal formation via mechanisms of crystal growth is called crystallization or solidification. The word crystal is derived from the Ancient Greek word κρύσταλλος (krustallos), meaning both “ice” and “rock crystal”,^[1] from κρύος (kruos), “icy cold, frost”.^[2][3]

Most common metals are polycrystals. Crystals are often symmetrically intergrown to form crystal twins.

3.IkatanKristal(kuliah-2).pdf
7.6 Pertemuan ke -6 : Vibrasi Kristal
3.Ikatan Kristal.pdf
7.7 Pertemuan ke -7 : Vibrasi Kristal
4.Vibrasi (kuliah).pdf
7.8 Pertemuan ke -8 : Test Unit - I

7.9 Pertemuan ke -9 : Sifat Thermal Kristal
5.SIFAT TERMAL KRISTAL.pdf
7.10 Pertemuan ke-10 : Sifat Thermal Kristal
5.SifatThermalKristal(Kuliah).pdf

Crystal structure

Insulin crystals grown in outer space

Halite (sodium chloride) - a single, large crystal.

The process of forming a crystalline structure from a fluid or from materials dissolved in the fluid is often referred to as the crystallization process. In the old example referenced by the root meaning of the word crystal, water being cooled undergoes a phase change from liquid to solid beginning with small ice crystals that grow until they fuse, forming a polycrystalline structure. The physical properties of the ice depend on the size and arrangement of the individual crystals, or grains, and the same may be said of metals solidifying from a molten state.

Which crystal structure the fluid will form depends on the chemistry of the fluid, the conditions under which it is being solidified, and also on the ambient pressure. While the cooling process usually results in the generation of a crystalline material, under certain conditions, the fluid may be frozen in a noncrystalline state. In most cases, this involves cooling the fluid so rapidly that atoms cannot travel to their lattice sites before they lose mobility. A noncrystalline material, which has no long-range order, is called an amorphous, vitreous, or glassy material. It is also often referred to as an amorphous solid, although there are distinct differences between crystalline solids and amorphous solids: most notably, the process of forming a glass does not release the latent heat of fusion.

Crystalline structures occur in all classes of materials, with all types of chemical bonds. Almost all metal exists in a polycrystalline state; amorphous or single-crystal metals must be produced synthetically, often with great difficulty. Ionically bonded crystals can form upon solidification of salts, either from a molten fluid or upon crystallization from a solution. Covalently bonded crystals are also very common, notable examples being diamond, silica, and graphite. Polymer materials generally will form crystalline regions, but the lengths of the molecules usually prevent complete crystallization. Weak van der Waals forces can also play a role in a crystal structure; for example, this type of bonding loosely holds together the hexagonal-patterned sheets in graphite.

Most crystalline materials have a variety of crystallographic defects. The types and structures of these defects may have a profound effect on the properties of the materials.

Crystalline phases

• Polymorphism is the ability of a solid to exist in more than one crystal form. For example, water ice is ordinarily found in the hexagonal form Ice I_h, but can also exist as the cubic Ice I_c, the rhombohedral ice II, and many other forms.
• Amorphous phases are also possible with the same molecule, such as amorphous ice. In this case, the phenomenon is known as polyamorphism.
• For pure chemical elements, polymorphism is known as allotropy. For example, diamond, graphite, and fullerenes are different allotropes of carbon.

Special cases

A large monocrystal of potassium dihydrogen phosphate grown from solution by Saint-Gobain for the megajoule laser of CEA.

Gallium, a metal that easily forms large single crystals

Ice crystals

Fossil shell with calcite crystals

Since the initial discovery of crystal-like individual arrays of atoms that are not regularly repeated, made in 1982 by Dan Shechtman, the acceptance of the concept and the word quasicrystal have led the International Union of Crystallography to redefine the term crystal to mean "any solid having an essentially discrete diffraction diagram", thereby shifting the essential attribute of crystallinity from position space to Fourier space. Within the family of crystals one distinguishes between traditional crystals, which are periodic, or repeating, at the atomic scale, and aperiodic (incommensurate) crystals which are not. This broader definition adopted in 1996 reflects the current understanding that microscopic periodicity is a sufficient but not a necessary condition for crystals.

While the term "crystal" has a precise meaning within materials science and solid-state physics, colloquially "crystal" refers to solid objects that exhibit well-defined and often pleasing geometric shapes. In this sense of the word, many types of crystals are found in nature. The shape of these crystals is dependent on the types of molecular bonds between the atoms to determine the structure, as well as on the conditions under which they formed. Snowflakes, diamonds, and table salt are common examples of crystals.

Some crystalline materials may exhibit special electrical properties such as the ferroelectric effect or the piezoelectric effect. Additionally, light passing through a crystal is often refracted or bent in different directions, producing an array of colors; crystal optics is the study of these effects. In periodic dielectric structures a range of unique optical properties can be expected as seen in photonic crystals.

Lihat Juga:

Pendahuluan Fisika Zat Padat

Disusun Ulang Oleh:

Arip Nurahman

Department of Physics, Indonesia University of Education

&

Follower Open Course Ware at MIT-Harvard University, Cambridge.USA.

Semoga Bermanfaat dan Terima Kasih

Pendahuluan Fisika Zat Padat

Matakuliah : Pendahuluan Fisika Zat Padat

Nama Dosen :

1. Dra. Wiendartun, M.Si

2. Dra. Heni, M.Si.

3. Drs. Yuyu R. Tayubi, M.Si.

0.SILLABY Pend.Pdt-1.pdf

Pustaka :

1. Kittel Charles, Introduction to Solid State Physics 7th.ed, 1996, John Wiley & Sons, New York
2. Ashcroft and Mermin, Solid State Physics, 1976, Saunders College , Philadelphia.

Sinar X

• Merupakan radiasi elektromagnetik berenergi tinggi

• Dihasilkan akibat interaksi antara berkas berkas elektron eksternal dengan elektron pada kulit atom.

• Spektrum sinar x memiliki:

panjang gelombang antara10^-5-1 nm,

frekuensi antara 10¹⁷-10²⁰ Hz,

Energi antara 10³-10⁶ eV.

• Panjang gelombnag Sinar X memiliki orde yang sama dengan jarak antara atom.

  

Prinsip difraksi Sinar X

• Sinar X terpancar dari tabung Sinar X.

• Difraksi sinar X yang konvergen diterima slit.

• Sinar X diterima detektor,

diubah menjadi sinyal listrik.

• Sinyal ini dihitung sebagai analisa pulsa tinggi.

Interaksi Sinar X dengan material

1. Energi berkas Sinar X terserap oleh atom.

2. Energi berkas Sinar X dihamburkan oleh atom

Difraksi Sinar X

1. Proses hamburan sinar X oleh bahan kristal.
2. Difraksi tergantung pada struktur kristal dan panjang gelombang.

1. 1. jika (λ) ukuran atom, tidak terjadi difraksi
   2. jika (λ) < ukuran atom, terjadi difraksi
      

   Difraksi Sinar X

   • Teknik yang digunakan dalam karakterisasi material.

   • Untuk mendapatkan informasi mengenai ukuran atom.

   Hukum Bragg

   n = 1,2,3,…. orde pertama, kedua, ketiga dst

   d jarak antara 2 bidang pantul yang berdekatan

   θ sudut antara sinar datang dan sinar pantul

   Interferensi konstruktif terjadi jika selisih lintasan antara dua sinar berurutan merupakan kelipatan dari panjang gelombangnya (λ)

   Karakterisasi XRD Kristal

   
   

(Dianny)

2AB.DIFRAKSI SINARX (Kuliah).pdf
7.4 Pertemuan ke -4 : Difraksi sinar- x oleh kristal
2.Difraksi Sinar X.pdf
7.5 Pertemuan ke -5 : Ikatan Kristal

X-ray crystallography

X-ray crystallography can locate every atom in a zeolite, an aluminosilicate with many important applications, such as water purification.

X-ray crystallography is a method of determining the arrangement of atoms within a crystal, in which a beam of X-rays strikes a crystal and diffracts into many specific directions. From the angles and intensities of these diffracted beams, a crystallographer can produce a three-dimensional picture of the density of electrons within the crystal. From this electron density, the mean positions of the atoms in the crystal can be determined, as well as their chemical bonds, their disorder and various other information.

Since many materials can form crystals — such as salts, metals, minerals, semiconductors, as well as various inorganic, organic and biological molecules — X-ray crystallography has been fundamental in the development of many scientific fields. In its first decades of use, this method determined the size of atoms, the lengths and types of chemical bonds, and the atomic-scale differences among various materials, especially minerals and alloys. The method also revealed the structure and functioning of many biological molecules, including vitamins, drugs, proteins and nucleic acids such as DNA. X-ray crystallography is still the chief method for characterizing the atomic structure of new materials and in discerning materials that appear similar by other experiments. X-ray crystal structures can also account for unusual electronic or elastic properties of a material, shed light on chemical interactions and processes, or serve as the basis for designing pharmaceuticals against diseases.

In an X-ray diffraction measurement, a crystal is mounted on a goniometer and gradually rotated while being bombarded with X-rays, producing a diffraction pattern of regularly spaced spots known as reflections. The two-dimensional images taken at different rotations are converted into a three-dimensional model of the density of electrons within the crystal using the mathematical method of Fourier transforms, combined with chemical data known for the sample. Poor resolution (fuzziness) or even errors may result if the crystals are too small, or not uniform enough in their internal makeup.

X-ray crystallography is related to several other methods for determining atomic structures. Similar diffraction patterns can be produced by scattering electrons or neutrons, which are likewise interpreted as a Fourier transform. If single crystals of sufficient size cannot be obtained, various other X-ray methods can be applied to obtain less detailed information; such methods include fiber diffraction, powder diffraction and small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS). If the material under investigation is only available in the form of nanocrystalline powders or suffers from poor crystallinity, the methods of electron crystallography can be applied for determining the atomic structure.

For all above mentioned X-ray diffraction methods, the scattering is elastic; the scattered X-rays have the same wavelength as the incoming X-ray. By contrast, inelastic X-ray scattering methods are useful in studying excitations of the sample, rather than the distribution of its atoms.

Textbooks

• Blow D (2002). Outline of Crystallography for Biologists. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198510519.
• Burns G., Glazer A M (1990). Space Groups for Scientists and Engineers (2nd ed.). Boston: Academic Press, Inc. ISBN 0121457613.
• Clegg W (1998). Crystal Structure Determination (Oxford Chemistry Primer). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198559011.
• Cullity B.D. (1978). Elements of X-Ray Diffraction (2nd ed.). Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company. ISBN 0534553966.
• Drenth J (1999). Principles of Protein X-Ray Crystallography. New York: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 0387985875.
• Giacovazzo C et al. (1992). Fundamentals of Crystallography. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198555784.
• Glusker JP, Lewis M, Rossi M (1994). Crystal Structure Analysis for Chemists and Biologists. New York: VCH Publishers. ISBN 0471185434.
• Massa W (2004). Crystal Structure Determination. Berlin: Springer. ISBN 3540206442.
• McPherson A (1999). Crystallization of Biological Macromolecules. Cold Spring Harbor, NY: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. ISBN 0879696176.
• McPherson A (2003). Introduction to Macromolecular Crystallography. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0471251224.
• McRee DE (1993). Practical Protein Crystallography. San Diego: Academic Press. ISBN 0124860508.
• O'Keeffe M, Hyde B G (1996). Crystal Structures; I. Patterns and Symmetry. Washington, DC: Mineralogical Society of America, Monograph Series. ISBN 0939950405.
• Rhodes G (2000). Crystallography Made Crystal Clear. San Diego: Academic Press. ISBN 0125870728. , PDF copy of select chapters
• Rupp B (2009). Biomolecular Crystallography: Principles, Practice and Application to Structural Biology. New York: Garland Science. ISBN 0815340818.
• Zachariasen WH (1945). Theory of X-ray Diffraction in Crystals. New York: Dover Publications. LCCN 67-26967.

Applied computational data analysis

• Young, R.A., ed (1993). The Rietveld Method. Oxford: Oxford University Press & International Union of Crystallography. ISBN 0198555776.

Tutorials

• Crystallography for beginners
• Simple, non technical introduction
• "Small Molecule Crystalization" (PDF) at Illinois Institute of Technology website
• International Union of Crystallography
• Crystallography 101
• Interactive structure factor tutorial, demonstrating properties of the diffraction pattern of a 2D crystal.
• Picturebook of Fourier Transforms, illustrating the relationship between crystal and diffraction pattern in 2D.
• Lecture notes on X-ray crystallography and structure determination
• Online lecture on Modern X-ray Scattering Methods for Nanoscale Materials Analysis by Richard J. Matyi

Disusun Ulang Oleh:

Arip Nurahman

Department of Physics, Indonesia University of Education

&

Follower Open Course Ware at MIT-Harvard University, Cambridge.USA.

Semoga Bermanfaat dan Terima Kasih


Lihat Juga

Pendahuluan Fisika Zat Padat